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| Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) |
Edgar Allan Poe is a Gothic poet, considered to be a central figure of Romanticism. He has been described as the "rockstar of American literature in the 1830's and 1840's" as his life was touched by scandal from his Virginia University expulsion due to gambling and drinking debts, through to his unfavourable obituary written by his former friend.
Tamerlane (1827)
Tamerlane follows an Turkic conqueror who ignores his love of a peasant in order to achieve power. Although Timur Lenk, the fourteenth century central Asian ruler on whom Tamerlane is based, would have been Muslim, Poe takes the romantic idea of a celebrated but flawed leader and puts him into a more Western religious setting (however, reference to Eblis - an Islamic demon - creates ambiguity). The poem is a retrospective narrative from Tamerlane's deathbed constructed as a confession to a Catholic Priest; the retrospect is highlighted by the archaic and elevated diction and deliberate pace which establish that Tamerlane is, not as an emotional youth ("for passion must, with youth expire"), but as a thoughtful man in his old age.The poem conforms to the ideals of the Romantic movement as youth and nature are praised, and it is suggested that Tamerlane believes he was at his best when he was "Roaming the forest, and the wild" as a young man with his love. This reference to nature is repeatedly used to emphasise the goodness and purity of love and youth. Descriptions of the past such as:
"O craving heart, for the lost flowers
And sunshine of my summer hours!"
Serve to juxtapose descriptions of ambition. Descriptive terms for ambition in Tamerlane frequently fall into the semantic field of 'burning' which has connotations of hellfire (made all the more poignant by the fact that the poem is a confession of sins on Tamerlane's deathbed). For example in the first stanza hope is described as "that fire of fire!", and fame is described as "searing glory". The positive descriptions of romance juxtaposing the negative descriptions of ambition demonstrate to the reader the remorse that Tamerlane feels about the way he lived his life.
Later in the poem Tamerlane explains that in light of achievement, ambition becomes redundant because "For all we live to know is known, And all we seek to keep hath flown--". He describes his achievement, his empire, as "queen of Earth". Personified as a woman it is clear that Samarcand (the aforementioned empire) has replaced the peasant girl he loved. But once his ambitions had been achieved "homeward turn'd his soften'd eye" and he finds that what he covets is the youthful love he has lost. The poem concludes with Tamerlane describing Ambition (capitalised along with "idol Love" so both are personified) as a "snare" that he fell into and thus lived an ambitious life when he should have lived a life contented in love.
Because of its early placement in Poe's career, the protagonist of Tamerlane can be considered a prototype for the later tormented and sorrowful narrators of his later poems (e.g. The Raven, Annabel Lee). Like later narrator's of Poe's works, Tamerlane suffers because of the death of his young beautiful lover and he is unable to move on from the memory of her despite the fact that his memories of her are so faded he describes them as "shadows on th' unstable wind". However, he differs from other protagonists in that they often lose loved ones for reasons outside their control whereas for Tamerlane it was a result of his own errors of judgement.
Because of its early placement in Poe's career, the protagonist of Tamerlane can be considered a prototype for the later tormented and sorrowful narrators of his later poems (e.g. The Raven, Annabel Lee). Like later narrator's of Poe's works, Tamerlane suffers because of the death of his young beautiful lover and he is unable to move on from the memory of her despite the fact that his memories of her are so faded he describes them as "shadows on th' unstable wind". However, he differs from other protagonists in that they often lose loved ones for reasons outside their control whereas for Tamerlane it was a result of his own errors of judgement.
The Sleeper (1831)
In his critical work The Philosophy of Composition Edgar Allan Poe asserted that "The death, then, of a beautiful woman is, unquestionably, the most poetical topic in the world". The Sleeper suggests the transcendent nature of love as the narrator describes his ongoing devotion to a girl who lies dead before him.
The first stanza is used to create an eerie atmosphere of mystery and melancholy. He describes the "mystic moon" (a conventional symbol for death and melancholy) casting a "dewy, dim" light. Expressions like "opiate vapour" and "drowsily" and reference to Lethe, the ancient Greek spirit of forgetfulness and oblivion, create a lethargic mood in keeping with the title. The moonlight is described as dripping "musically" which is supported by the use of alliteration ("mystic moon", "dewy, dim", "dripping, drop by drop") and the fact that the poem is written in iambic pentameter.
The second stanza begins with an apostrophe (a device, sometimes represented by beginning "O", where the narrator addresses an imagined character). Throughout the stanza the narrator addresses the dead girl, even asking her questions though she is incapable of responding. This detaches the narrator from his surroundings and is able to convey abstract emotions (his love for The Sleeper) in an understandable way. In the third and fourth stanzas he shifts from talking to her to talking about her, but the tone becomes more loving. The repeated use of "Oh" and exclamation marks create a celebratory song-like tone which suggest that rather than detracting from the narrator's love, her death has enhanced it.
The final stanza contrasts youth and death as the narrator describes a child version of The Sleeper throwing stones at the very tomb she know lies in. In order to create a sense of the purity and innocence of death the narrator switches the typical connotations of the juxtaposing symbol of youth by referring to her as a "child of sin"; the fact that youth is sinful suggests that mortality is virtuous. The confrontation between youth and mortality in the final stanza creates a sense of the omnipresence of death, which contributes to the eerie atmosphere that was created in the first stanza.
The first stanza is used to create an eerie atmosphere of mystery and melancholy. He describes the "mystic moon" (a conventional symbol for death and melancholy) casting a "dewy, dim" light. Expressions like "opiate vapour" and "drowsily" and reference to Lethe, the ancient Greek spirit of forgetfulness and oblivion, create a lethargic mood in keeping with the title. The moonlight is described as dripping "musically" which is supported by the use of alliteration ("mystic moon", "dewy, dim", "dripping, drop by drop") and the fact that the poem is written in iambic pentameter.
The second stanza begins with an apostrophe (a device, sometimes represented by beginning "O", where the narrator addresses an imagined character). Throughout the stanza the narrator addresses the dead girl, even asking her questions though she is incapable of responding. This detaches the narrator from his surroundings and is able to convey abstract emotions (his love for The Sleeper) in an understandable way. In the third and fourth stanzas he shifts from talking to her to talking about her, but the tone becomes more loving. The repeated use of "Oh" and exclamation marks create a celebratory song-like tone which suggest that rather than detracting from the narrator's love, her death has enhanced it.
The final stanza contrasts youth and death as the narrator describes a child version of The Sleeper throwing stones at the very tomb she know lies in. In order to create a sense of the purity and innocence of death the narrator switches the typical connotations of the juxtaposing symbol of youth by referring to her as a "child of sin"; the fact that youth is sinful suggests that mortality is virtuous. The confrontation between youth and mortality in the final stanza creates a sense of the omnipresence of death, which contributes to the eerie atmosphere that was created in the first stanza.
The Raven (1845)
The Raven is Poe's most famous poem, notable for its melodic and dramatic qualities. It is a ballad that tells of a talking raven's visit to a distraught lover, and follows his descent into madness. The lover is lamenting the loss of his love, Lenore, and the raven who sits on a bust of Pallas provokes his stress by repeating the word "Nevermore". The emphasis on the "O" sounds in words like "Lenore" and "Nevermore" underline the melancholy sound of the poem; and the repetition of "Nevermore" contributes to what Poe called "the unity effect" which is where each word or line adds to the overall meaning of the poem.
The first seven stanzas establish the narrator's melancholic and impressionable state of mind. Initially the narrator is reading in order to distract himself from thoughts of Lenore, however, his whispering "Lenore?" into an empty corridor demonstrates that he continues to think of her. Throughout the poem the narrator seems torn between forgetting Lenore and torturing himself with memories of her: even after he has deduced that the Raven only responds with the word "Nevermore", he asks whether he will ever forget Lenore or see her again, knowing he will be tormented by the inevitable answer. In a state of maddened frenzy he then asks whether his soul would ever be reunited with Lenore in heaven. Receiving the horrific “Nevermore” in reply to his ultimate question, the distraught narrator demands that the raven leave his chambers; the raven’s unendurable answer drives the bereaved love to despair. The raven becomes a permanent fixture in the room, a symbolic presence presiding over the narrator’s self-inflicted mental and spiritual collapse.
The physical setting of the poem, as well as the relentless trochaic rhythm and emphatic alliteration, serves to reflect the narrator's feeling of imprisonment. The poem begins at midnight in December: internally and externally, it is a time of death and decay. Even the “dying” fireplace embers reflect the melancholic atmosphere. The single room the poem is set in feels contained and claustrophobic which adds to this effect. The narrator himself is “Weak and weary”, mirroring the time and location, he seems trapped in his richly furnished prison. The unabating musical lilt in the rhythm of the poem is delivered with maddening regularity, aptly conveying the narrator's disintegrating reason while contributing to the claustrophobic effect of the poem.
The physical setting of the poem, as well as the relentless trochaic rhythm and emphatic alliteration, serves to reflect the narrator's feeling of imprisonment. The poem begins at midnight in December: internally and externally, it is a time of death and decay. Even the “dying” fireplace embers reflect the melancholic atmosphere. The single room the poem is set in feels contained and claustrophobic which adds to this effect. The narrator himself is “Weak and weary”, mirroring the time and location, he seems trapped in his richly furnished prison. The unabating musical lilt in the rhythm of the poem is delivered with maddening regularity, aptly conveying the narrator's disintegrating reason while contributing to the claustrophobic effect of the poem.
